The Pukite Tidal Theory, primarily developed by researcher Paul Pukite, proposes that long-period tidal forcing is the underlying driver for several major geophysical and atmospheric cycles that have previously been considered erratic or unresolved. [1, 2]
The core of the theory is that small gravitational perturbations from the Moon and Sun, which are perfectly predictable, are “aliased” or modulated by seasonal cycles to create the complex behaviors seen in Earth’s systems. [3, 4]
Key Phenomena Addressed
Pukite applies this model to three main “unresolved mysteries” in geophysics:
Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO): A regular reversal of stratospheric winds. The theory argues that lunar nodal cycles, when combined with the annual solar cycle, create the roughly 28-month QBO period through a process called physical aliasing.
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): An erratic oceanic temperature cycle. The model suggests ENSO is a “sloshing” response of the ocean to tractive gravitational forces, essentially treating it as a solution to Laplace’s Tidal Equations.
Chandler Wobble: A small deviation in the Earth’s axis of rotation. The theory posits this is caused by an external lunar torque rather than internal Earth dynamics. [1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7]
How the Model Works
Lunar Gravitational Potential: The model starts by calculating the precise lunar gravitational potential over time.
Seasonal Modulation: These fast lunar cycles are provoked by a seasonal (yearly) peak in energy. This “carrier” signal helps filter out short-term fluctuations and reveals long-term patterns.
Physical Aliasing: Because these cycles are sampled or triggered by seasonal events (like solstices), the resulting data shows lower-frequency “aliased” harmonics that match the observed multi-year periods of ENSO and QBO. [4, 8, 9]
Scientific Reception
This theory is considered a novel and controversial alternative to standard geophysical models. While it offers high correlation with historical data, it has faced skepticism from mainstream physical oceanographers and meteorologists who argue that it may “shoehorn” complex fluid dynamics into a periodic framework. Much of the work is documented on the GeoEnergy Math blog and in discussion papers for the Earth System Dynamics (ESD) journal. [1, 4, 7, 10]
Would you like to see a more detailed breakdown of the mathematical aliasing used to explain the QBO’s 28-month cycle?
A number of the Earth’s geophysical behaviors characterized by cycles have both a solar and lunar basis. For the ubiquitous ocean tides, the magnitude of each factor are roughly the same — rationalized by the fact that even though the sun is much more massive than the moon, it’s much further away.
However, there are several behaviors that even though they have a clear solar forcing, lack a lunar counterpart. These include the Earth’s fast wobble, the equatorial SAO/QBO, ENSO, and others. The following table summarizes how these gaps in causation are closed, with the missing lunar explanation bolded. Unless otherwise noted by a link, the detailed analysis is found in the text Mathematical Geoenergy.
Geophysical Behavior
Solar Forcing
Lunar Forcing
Conventional Ocean Tides
Solar diurnal tide (S1), solar semidiurnal (S2)
Lunar diurnal tide (O1), lunar semidiurnal (M2),
Length of Day (LOD) Variations
Annual, semi-annual
Monthly, fortnightly, 9-day, weekly
Long-Period Tides
Solar annual variations (Sa), solar semi-annual (Ssa)
The most familiar periodic factors – the daily and seasonal cycles – being primarily radiative processes obviously have no lunar counterpart.
And climate science itself is currently preoccupied with the prospect of anthropogenic global warming/climate change, which has little connection to the sun or moon, so the significance of the connections shown is largely muted by louder voices.
I had heard that Perplexity was an LLM geared to scientific research, so I gave it this prompt:
Explain the Chandler wobble as due to a stroboscopic driving force emerging from the nonlinear modulation of an impulsed annual signal with the periodic declination torque of the lunar draconic cycle operating as a wavenumber=0 group symmetry.
The Chandler wobble can be viewed as a stroboscopically forced precession mode of Earth’s rotation, driven by a nonlinear interaction between an annually pulsed excitation and the lunar draconic (nodal) tide, with the effective forcing emerging in the band of the 433‑day free wobble. [1,2,3]
The behavioral characteristics include a cycle and damping:
The Chandler wobble is a free nutation of Earth’s rotation axis with a period of about 433 days and amplitude of order 0.05–0.2 arcsec, slightly different from the 305‑day Euler period because Earth is elastic and has oceans and a fluid core. [3,6,7]
In the absence of forcing, this mode would decay on a timescale of decades, so it must be continuously re‑excited by some geophysical process (mass redistribution in oceans/atmosphere, etc.). [3,4,5]
An annual impulsive forcing also generates an annual wobble. Think of the annual cycle as supplying near‑impulsive changes in the effective torque that can couple into polar motion, because seasonal mass shifts and circulation changes are strongest at certain times of year (e.g., around solstices). [1,3,5]
In a simplified model, this is approximated as an annual train of impulses in the excitation function of the polar motion equation rather than a smooth sinusoid. [1,2]
An impulse train has a flat, comb‑like spectrum: it projects power into many sidebands around any underlying carrier frequency it modulates. When that carrier is the lunar draconic tide, the sidebands can “step” into the Chandler band by aliasing and nonlinear mixing. [1,2]
The draconic (nodal) tide acts as a modulator to force sub-band cycles on the annual carrier. The lunar draconic cycle (node–to–node motion of the Moon’s orbit relative to the equatorial plane) produces a strong, periodic variation in declination and thus in the latitude pattern of tidal torque on Earth. The relevant subharmonic here is the draconic fortnight (≈13.606 days), which governs how the lunar tidal bulge migrates north–south. [1]
If you take that relatively high frequency draconic signal and modulate it with a biannual or annual envelope tied to the solar geometry (solstice alignment of Sun–Moon–Earth), you get an amplitude‑modulated carrier. In Fourier terms, that modulation splits the draconic line into a comb of spectral lines spaced by ± n × (1 yr) around the original frequency. [1,2]
Because Earth’s free Chandler frequency sits far below the raw draconic frequency, you don’t resonate with the carrier itself; instead you hit the Chandler band through an aliasing condition: one of those sidebands (carrier ± k×annual) falls extremely close to the Chandler frequency (≈0.843 cycles/yr), so energy is pumped efficiently into the wobble. [1,2]
There’s a stroboscopic viewpoint to aid in understanding. From a stroboscope’s perspective, the annual (or twice‑annual) sampling by the Sun–Earth geometry “views” the draconic torque at almost, but not exactly, the same phase each year. This is analogous to watching a fast‑spinning wheel under a flashing light: if the flash frequency is close but not equal to the spin frequency, you see a slow apparent beat motion. The slow beat corresponds here to the Chandler period, and the flashing is the annually pulsed excitation. [1,2]
Mathematically, the product of a fast oscillation (draconic tide) and an impulsive annual envelope produces cross‑terms whose effective frequency is the difference between the draconic and integer multiples of the annual frequency. One of these difference frequencies lands in the Chandler band, so in the rotating‑frame equations for polar motion it appears as a nearly resonant, narrowband forcing. [1,2,3]
Concerning the Wavenumber = 0 group symmetry: Polar motion is effectively a global (degree‑1, order‑1 in spherical harmonics) displacement of Earth’s rotation axis with respect to its figure; the Chandler mode is a normal mode of the whole body. [5,6,7]
The particular draconic–annual interaction you describe can be interpreted as exciting the azimuthally symmetric part of the torque pattern—no preferred longitude, just a latitude‑dependent load—which in spectral language is a wavenumber‑0 (axisymmetric) component in Earth’s rotating frame. [1,6]
Calling it a “wavenumber=0 group symmetry” is a way of saying: after averaging over the fast draconic and diurnal phases, what survives is the group‑velocity‑scale envelope of the forcing, which is spatially uniform in longitude and thus couples efficiently to the global Chandler eigenmode while filtering out higher‑wavenumber patterns that would average to zero. [1,6,7]
So in compact form: the Chandler wobble emerges as a resonant response of Earth’s free polar mode to a stroboscopically generated, axisymmetric forcing produced by nonlinear mixing of an annually impulsed excitation with the lunar draconic tide, whose aliased sideband falls at the Chandler frequency. [1,2,3]
(continuation prompt)
What mathematical formula derives the 433-day period from draconic aliasing?
You can get the 433‑day Chandler period as a beat (alias) period between the draconic fortnightly tide and the annual cycle by using the standard aliasing / beat‑frequency relation in frequency space. [1,2,3]
1. Set up the frequencies. Let
Draconic fortnight period (half draconic month) [1,2]
Annual period [1,4]
Convert to frequencies (in cycles per day):
Numerically, [1,2]
2. Alias (beat) with annual sampling is when you modulate or impulsively sample the draconic signal annually, sidebands appear at
The effective long period seen in the slowly varying envelope (the alias period) is
Choose integer [n] such that lands near 433 days. In the GeoEnergy Math formulation this corresponds to the harmonic that comes out closest to the Chandler band, giving
which matches the observed Chandler wobble period. [1,2,3]
So, in words: the mathematical formula is the beat‑period relation
,
with from the 13.606‑day draconic fortnight and from the annual cycle, and for the appropriate harmonic (n) this evaluates to ≈ 433 days. [1,2,3]
The behavior of complex systems, particularly in fluid dynamics, is traditionally described by high-dimensional systems of equations like the Navier-Stokes equations. While providing practical applications as is, these models can obscure the underlying, simplified mechanisms at play. It is notable that ocean modeling already incorporates dimensionality reduction built in, such as through Laplace’s Tidal Equations (LTE), which is a reduced-order formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations. Furthermore, the topological containment of phenomena like ENSO and QBO within the equatorial toroid , and the ability to further reduce LTE in this confined topology as described in the context of our text Mathematical Geoenergy underscore the inherent low-dimensional nature of dominant geophysical processes. The concept of hidden latent manifolds posits that the true, observed dynamics of a system do not occupy the entire high-dimensional phase space, but rather evolve on a much lower-dimensional geometric structure—a manifold layer—where the system’s effective degrees of freedom reside. This may also help explain the seeming paradox of theinverse energy cascade, whereby order in fluid structures seems to maintain as the waves become progressively larger, as nonlinear interactions accumulate energy transferring from smaller scales.
Discovering these latent structures from noisy, observational data is the central challenge in state-of-the-art fluid dynamics. Enter the Sparse Identification of Nonlinear Dynamics (SINDy) algorithm, pioneered by Brunton et al. . SINDy is an equation-discovery framework designed to identify a sparse set of nonlinear terms that describe the evolution of the system on this low-dimensional manifold. Instead of testing all possible combinations of basis functions, SINDy uses a penalized regression technique (like LASSO) to enforce sparsity, effectively winnowing down the possibilities to find the most parsimonious, yet physically meaningful, governing differential equations. The result is a simple, interpretable model that captures the essential physics—the fingerprint of the latent manifold. The SINDy concept is not that difficult an algorithm to apply as a decent Python library is available for use, and I have evaluated it as described here.
Applying this methodology to Earth system dynamics, particularly the seemingly noisy, erratic, and perhaps chaotic time series of sea-level variation and climate index variability, reveals profound simplicity beneath the complexity. The high-dimensional output of climate models or raw observations can be projected onto a model framework driven by remarkably few physical processes. Specifically, as shown in analysis targeting the structure of these time series, the dynamics can be cross-validated by the interaction of two fundamental drivers: a forced gravitational tide and an annual impulse.
The presence of the forced gravitational tide accounts for the regular, high-frequency, and predictable components of the dynamics. The annual impulse, meanwhile, serves as the seasonal forcing function, representing the integrated effect of large-scale thermal and atmospheric cycles that reset annually. The success of this sparse, two-component model—where the interaction of these two elements is sufficient to capture the observed dynamics—serves as the ultimate validation of the latent manifold concept. The gravitational tides with the integrated annual impulse are the discovered, low-dimensional degrees of freedom, and the ability of their coupled solution to successfully cross-validate to the observed, high-fidelity dynamics confirms that the complex, high-dimensional reality of sea-level and climate variability emerges from this simple, sparse, and interpretable set of latent governing principles. This provides a powerful, physics-constrained approach to prediction and understanding, moving beyond descriptive models toward true dynamical discovery.
Crucially, this analysis does not use the SINDy algorithm, but a much more basic multiple linear regression (MLR) algorithm predecessor, which I anticipate being adapted to SINDy as the model is further refined. Part of the rationale for doing this is to maintain a deep understanding of the mathematics, as well as providing cross-checking and thus avoiding the perils of over-fitting, which is the bane of neural network models.
Also read this intro level on tidal modeling, which may form the fundamental foundation for the latent manifold: https://pukpr.github.io/examples/warne_intro.html. The coastal station at Wardemunde in Germany along the Baltic sea provided a long unbroken interval of sea-level readings which was used to calibrate the hidden latent manifold that in turn served as a starting point for all the other models. Not every model works as well as the majority — see Pensacola for a sea-level site and and IOD or TNA for climate indices, but these are equally valuable for understanding limitations (and providing a sanity check against an accidental degeneracy in the model fitting process) . The use of SINDy in the future will provide additional functionality such as regularization that will find an optimal common-mode latent layer,.
The truly massive scale in the motion of fluids and solids on Earth arises from orbital interactions with our spinning planet. The most obvious of these, such as the daily and seasonal cycles, are taken for granted. Others, such as ocean tides, have more complicated mechanisms than the ordinary person realizes (e.g. ask someone to explain why there are 2 tidal cycles per day). There are also less well-known motions, such as the variation in the Earth’s rotation rate of nominally 360° per day, which is called the delta in Length of Day (LOD), and in the slight annual wobble in the Earth’s rotation axis. Nevertheless, each one of these is technically well-characterized and models of the motion include a quantitative mapping to the orbital cycles of the Sun, Moon, and Earth. This is represented in the directed graph below, where the BLUE ovals indicate behaviors that are fundamentally understood and modeled via tables of orbital factors.
The cyan background represents behaviors that have a longitudinal dependence (rendered by GraphViz)
However, those ovals highlighted in GRAY are nowhere near being well-understood in spite of being at least empirically well-characterized via years of measurements. Further, what is (IMO) astonishing is the lack of research interest in modeling these massive behaviors as a result of the same orbital mechanisms as that which causes tides, seasons, and the variations in LOD. In fact, everything tagged in the chart is essentially a behavior relating to an inertial response to something. That something, as reported in the Earth sciences literature, is only vaguely described — and never as a tidal or tidal/annual interaction.
I don’t see how it’s possible to overlook such an obvious causal connection. Why would the forcing that causes a massive behavior such as tides suddenly stop having a connection to other related inertial behaviors? The answers I find in the research literature are essentially that “someone looked in the past and found no correlation”[1].
Lorenz turned out to be a chaotic dead-end in understanding Earth dynamics. Instead we need a new unified model of solid liquid dynamics focusing on symmetries of the rotating earth, applying equations of solid bodies & fluid dynamics. See Mathematical Geoenergy (Wiley, 2018).
Should have made this diagram long ago: here’s the ChatGPT4 prompt with the diagramming plugin.
Graph
Ocean Tides and dLOD have always been well-understood, largely because the mapping to lunar+solar cycles is so obvious. And the latter is getting better all the time — consider recent hi-res LOD measurements with a ring laser interferometer, pulling in diurnal tidal cycles with much better temporal resolution.
That’s the first stage of unification (yellow boxes above) — next do the other boxes (CW, QBO, ENSO, AMO, PDO, etc) as described in the book and on this blog, while calibrating to tides and LOD, and that becomes a cross-validated unified model.
Annotated10/11/2023
ontological classification according to wavenumber kx, ky, kz and fluid/solid.
Added so would not lose it — highlighted tidal factor is non-standard
“Because the distance effect annual cycle (from perihelion to perihelion, otherwise called the anomalistic year, 365.259636 d (ref. 6)) is slightly longer than the tilt effect annual cycle (from equinox to equinox, otherwise known as the tropical year, 365.242189 d (ref. 6)), the LOP increases over time. A complete revolution of the LOP is the precession cycle, about 22,000 yr (ref. 38). “
The claim is that the exact timing and strength of the annual cycle extreme is important in initiating an El Nino or La Nina cycle. as the Longitude of Perihelion (LOP) moves over time, so that when this aligns with the solstice/equinox events, the ENSO behavior will mirror the strength of the forcing.
This is not a 22,000 year cycle (as stated its actuallly closer to 21,000), but it’s possible that if tidal cycles play a part of the forcing, then a much shorter paleo cycle may emerge. Consider that the Mf tidal cycle of 13.66 days will generate a cycle of ~3.81 years when non-linearly modulated against the tropical year (seasonal cycle), but ~3.795 years modulated against the perigean or anomalistic year (nearest approach to the sun).
The difference between the two will reinforce every 783 years, which is close to the 800 year cycle. Aliasing and sideband frequency calculations reveal these patterns.
The idea of a digital twin is relatively new in terms of coinage of terms, but the essential idea has been around for decades. In the past, a digital twin was referred to as a virtual simulation of a specific system, encoded via a programming language. In the case of a system that was previously built, the virtual simulation emulated all the behaviors and characteristics of that system, only operated on a computer, with any necessary interactive controls and displays provided on a console, either real or virtual. A widely known example of a VS is that of a flight simulator, which in historical terms was the industrial forerunner to today’s virtual reality. A virtual simulation could also be used during the design of the system, with the finished digital twin providing a blueprint for the actual synthesis of the end-product. This approach has also been practiced for decades, both in the electronics industry via logic synthesis of integrated circuits from a hardware description language and with physical products via 3D printing from CAD models.
After this point, I provided ChatGPT prompts as italicized underlines after each sinewave icon , and ChatGPT provided responses. I executed the Julia code in a REPL window and saved the screenshotted plots and entered the image links below.
Model: GPT-4
Math equations for a spinning top in Julia
To simulate a spinning top in Julia, you can use the equations of motion derived from Euler’s equations for a rigid body. Here’s a simple example using the DifferentialEquations.jl package, which provides a convenient way to solve ordinary differential equations (ODEs) in Julia:
First, install the required packages by running:
using Pkg
Pkg.add("DifferentialEquations")
Pkg.add("Plots")
Now, you can write a script to simulate a spinning top:
using DifferentialEquations
using Plots
# Define the spinning top's properties
I1, I2, I3 = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 # Moments of inertia along the principal axes (x, y, z)
Ω1, Ω2, Ω3 = 0.0, 10.0, 20.0 # Initial angular velocities (rad/s)
# Equations of motion for the spinning top (Euler's equations for a rigid body)
function spinning_top!(du, u, p, t)
Ω1, Ω2, Ω3 = u
du[1] = (I2 - I3)/I1 * Ω2 * Ω3
du[2] = (I3 - I1)/I2 * Ω1 * Ω3
du[3] = (I1 - I2)/I3 * Ω1 * Ω2
end
# Initial conditions
u0 = [Ω1, Ω2, Ω3]
tspan = (0.0, 10.0) # Time span for the simulation (in seconds)
# Solve the ODE
prob = ODEProblem(spinning_top!, u0, tspan)
sol = solve(prob, Tsit5(), reltol=1e-8, abstol=1e-8)
# Plot the angular velocities
plot(sol, xlabel="Time (s)", ylabel="Angular velocity (rad/s)", title="Spinning Top", legend=:bottomright)
This code sets up and solves the ODEs that describe the motion of a spinning top with specified moments of inertia and initial angular velocities. The result is then plotted to show the evolution of the angular velocities over time.
Remember that this is a simple example that assumes the top is spinning in a vacuum, without any external forces or torques acting on it (such as gravity or air resistance). To model a more realistic spinning top, you will need to account for these factors in your equations of motion.
To the equations, add a slight periodic horizontal forcing impulse to the top of the spinning top
To add a slight periodic horizontal forcing impulse to the spinning top, you can modify the equations of motion accordingly. Let’s assume the forcing impulse acts along the x-axis and has the form F(t) = F0 * sin(ω * t), where F0 is the amplitude of the forcing impulse and ω is its angular frequency.
Here’s how you can update the spinning top simulation:
Modify the spinning_top! function to include the forcing impulse:
function spinning_top!(du, u, p, t)
Ω1, Ω2, Ω3 = u
F0, ω, I1, I2, I3 = p
# Forcing impulse along the x-axis
F = F0 * sin(ω * t)
du[1] = (I2 - I3)/I1 * Ω2 * Ω3 + F/I1
du[2] = (I3 - I1)/I2 * Ω1 * Ω3
du[3] = (I1 - I2)/I3 * Ω1 * Ω2
end
Update the initial conditions and ODE problem:
# Forcing impulse parameters
F0 = 0.01 # Amplitude of the forcing impulse
ω = 2π / 5 # Angular frequency of the forcing impulse (period = 5 seconds)
# Parameters to be passed to the spinning_top! function
p = [F0, ω, I1, I2, I3]
# Solve the ODE
prob = ODEProblem(spinning_top!, u0, tspan, p)
sol = solve(prob, Tsit5(), reltol=1e-8, abstol=1e-8)
The updated spinning_top! function now includes a forcing impulse along the x-axis, which is passed as a parameter (F0, ω). The ODE problem is also updated to include these parameters.
By running the simulation with the updated code, you can observe the effects of the slight periodic horizontal forcing impulse on the spinning top.
Is there an analytical solution for small forcing perturrbations?
For small forcing perturbations, it may be possible to find an approximate analytical solution using perturbation methods, such as regular perturbation or multiple-scale perturbation techniques. These methods involve expanding the solution in a power series of a small parameter (in this case, the amplitude of the forcing perturbation) and then substituting the series into the equations of motion.
However, finding an exact analytical solution for the spinning top with small forcing perturbations is generally not feasible due to the nonlinear nature of the governing equations. The Euler equations for rigid body rotation are a set of coupled, nonlinear ordinary differential equations, and the addition of a forcing term makes them even more complex. In practice, numerical methods are often used to solve these equations, as demonstrated in the previous examples.
If you want to gain insights into the behavior of the system under small forcing perturbations, you can use linear stability analysis and perturbation methods to study the stability and dynamics of the system. These methods can help you find approximate analytical solutions that are valid for small perturbations and understand the qualitative behavior of the system. However, for a complete and accurate description of the spinning top’s motion with forcing, it is usually necessary to rely on numerical simulations.
Generate the equivalent Fourier series representation of the previous differential equations.
A Fourier series representation is typically used to approximate periodic functions. In this case, we have a system of differential equations describing the motion of a spinning top with a forcing term. Instead of directly finding a Fourier series representation for the differential equations, we can approximate the solution of the system using a Fourier series.
To do this, we can first find the solution of the system without the forcing term (i.e., the homogeneous solution) and then find the particular solution that results from the forcing term. Finally, we can approximate both the homogeneous and particular solutions using Fourier series and combine them to obtain an approximation of the total solution.
Here’s a general outline of the approach:
Solve the homogeneous system (i.e., without the forcing term) to find the homogeneous solution.
Assume a particular solution of the form: Ω1(t) = A1 * sin(ω * t) + B1 * cos(ω * t) Ω2(t) = A2 * sin(ω * t) + B2 * cos(ω * t) Ω3(t) = A3 * sin(ω * t) + B3 * cos(ω * t) where A1, B1, A2, B2, A3, and B3 are constants to be determined.
Substitute the particular solution into the differential equations with the forcing term and solve for the constants A1, B1, A2, B2, A3, and B3.
Approximate the homogeneous and particular solutions using Fourier series, and combine them to obtain an approximation of the total solution.
Please note that this approach involves several steps and requires solving multiple linear systems and integrals to find the Fourier coefficients. Due to the complexity of the Euler equations and the forcing term, it may be challenging to find an exact analytical solution, even using the Fourier series approximation. In practice, numerical methods are often used to solve such systems, as demonstrated in the previous examples.
Assume the homogeneous solution damps out and only the particular solution remains, so find the steady-state solution only.
To find the steady-state solution, we’ll focus on the particular solution with the forcing term, as the homogeneous solution is assumed to damp out. We’ll assume a particular solution of the form:
Now, we can solve for the unknown coefficients A1, B1, A2, B2, A3, and B3 by substituting the particular solution and its derivatives into these equations and equating the coefficients of the sine and cosine terms. This will result in a system of linear equations that can be solved analytically or numerically.
However, due to the complexity of these equations and the nonlinear interaction between Ω1, Ω2, and Ω3, finding an exact analytical solution for the coefficients may be difficult. In practice, it is often more convenient to use numerical methods, such as the ones shown in the previous examples, to find the steady-state solution of the spinning top system under periodic forcing.
Calculate if one of the moments of inertia is much larger than the other two.
If one of the moments of inertia is much larger than the other two, the behavior of the spinning top can be significantly different. Let’s assume I3 is much larger than I1 and I2, i.e., I3 >> I1, I2. The modified Euler equations with the forcing term are:
Since dΩ3/dt is approximately zero, we can assume that Ω3 remains constant in the steady-state, i.e., the angular velocity about the z-axis remains constant.
Now, we can focus on finding the steady-state solution for Ω1(t) and Ω2(t) only. Assuming a particular solution of the form:
Substitute these expressions and their time derivatives into equations (1) and (2). Then, equate the coefficients of sine and cosine terms to obtain a system of linear equations for the unknown coefficients A1, B1, A2, and B2.
Due to the complexity of these equations, finding an exact analytical solution for the coefficients may still be challenging. As mentioned before, using numerical methods may be more convenient to find the steady-state solution of the spinning top system under these conditions.
Will the particular solutions be composed of harmonics of ω?
Yes, the particular solutions will be composed of harmonics of ω, the frequency of the forcing term. This is because the response of the system to the forcing term will have the same frequency as the forcing term itself.
When solving for the particular solution, we assumed a form like:
Here, the forcing term has a frequency of ω, and the particular solution also has the same frequency. The coefficients A1, B1, A2, B2, A3, and B3 depend on the system’s parameters and the forcing term. When the system reaches a steady-state, it will exhibit a response at the same frequency as the forcing term, i.e., ω.
It is essential to note that, in some cases, the response of the system may also contain higher harmonics of the forcing frequency if the equations are nonlinear. In the case of the spinning top, the Euler equations are nonlinear, and the interaction between the angular velocities can cause higher harmonics to appear in the response. However, for small forcing amplitudes, the response is expected to be dominated primarily by the forcing frequency ω.
Calculate if the moments of inertia are ordered as follows: I3 >> I2 >> I1.
If the moments of inertia are ordered as I3 >> I2 >> I1, the behavior of the spinning top can be analyzed using the modified Euler equations with the forcing term:
For Ω3(t), since dΩ3/dt is a product of Ω1 and Ω2, and both Ω1 and Ω2 have harmonic components at the frequency ω, the steady-state solution for Ω3(t) will also be composed of harmonics at the frequency ω:
Ω3(t) = A3 * sin(ω * t) + B3 * cos(ω * t)
Substitute these expressions and their time derivatives into equations (1), (2), and (3). Then, equate the coefficients of sine and cosine terms to obtain a system of linear equations for the unknown coefficients A1, B1, A2, B2, A3, and B3.
Due to the complexity of these equations, finding an exact analytical solution for the coefficients may still be challenging. As mentioned before, using numerical methods may be more convenient to find the steady-state solution of the spinning top system under these conditions.
How can the individual Euler equations reduce to identities since the RHS contains the fundamental frequency ω, while the LHS contains harmonics including 2ω due to the nonlinear product?
You’re correct in pointing out that the interaction between the angular velocities can cause higher harmonics to appear in the response due to the nonlinear nature of the Euler equations. My previous explanations did not fully capture this complexity.
Instead of directly assuming a particular solution with only the fundamental frequency ω, we should allow for the possibility of having higher harmonics in the response. To account for higher harmonics in the particular solution, we can use the following form:
The sum runs over all integer values of n, including the fundamental frequency and higher harmonics.
Substitute these expressions and their time derivatives into the Euler equations and then equate the coefficients of the sine and cosine terms for each harmonic. This will result in an infinite system of linear equations for the unknown coefficients A1n, B1n, A2n, B2n, A3n, and B3n.
In practice, it is not possible to solve for all these coefficients analytically, and we typically truncate the sum after a finite number of terms, capturing the most significant harmonics in the response. This will result in an approximate solution that accounts for higher harmonics due to the nonlinear product terms in the Euler equations.
The steady-state solution can then be obtained by solving the resulting truncated system of linear equations, either analytically or numerically. Note that finding the steady-state solution in this manner can still be quite challenging due to the complexity of the equations and the presence of higher harmonics. Therefore, numerical methods are often more convenient for solving such systems.
How to solve if the primary inertial moment I1 changes by a small frequency characterized by ν?
If the primary inertial moment I1 changes with a small frequency characterized by ν, we can represent I1 as a function of time:
I1(t) = I1_0 + ε * cos(ν * t)
where I1_0 is the constant mean value of I1, ε represents the amplitude of the variation, and ν is the frequency of the change.
The modified Euler equations with the forcing term now become:
These equations are now more complex due to the time-varying nature of I1(t). To find the steady-state solution, we can assume that the response of the system will contain harmonics related to both the forcing frequency ω and the frequency ν of the changing inertia:
The sum runs over all integer values of n and m, including the fundamental frequency and higher harmonics.
Substitute these expressions and their time derivatives into the Euler equations, and then equate the coefficients of the sine and cosine terms for each harmonic. This will result in an infinite system of linear equations for the unknown coefficients A1n, B1n, A2n, B2n, A3n, and B3n.
In practice, we truncate the sum after a finite number of terms to capture the most significant harmonics in the response. This will result in an approximate solution that accounts for higher harmonics due to the nonlinear product terms in the Euler equations and the time-varying nature of I1.
Finding the steady-state solution in this manner can be quite challenging due to the complexity of the equations and the presence of higher harmonics. Numerical methods are often more convenient for solving such systems, and you may consider using tools like the Julia programming language or other computational methods to find an approximate solution.
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Because of a high-Q and narrrow bandwidth of the response, will certain of these frequency terms predominate in the solution?
Yes, due to the high-Q (high quality factor) and narrow bandwidth of the response, certain frequency terms will predominate in the solution. A high-Q system is characterized by a sharp resonance peak, which means it is sensitive to a small range of frequencies around the natural frequency. As a result, only those harmonics that lie within the narrow bandwidth of the response will have a significant impact on the system’s behavior.
In the case of the spinning top with time-varying inertia, the response will be dominated by harmonics related to the forcing frequency ω and the frequency ν of the changing inertia. However, not all harmonics will have a substantial effect on the system. Those harmonics that are close to the natural frequencies of the system or within the narrow bandwidth of the response will predominate.
When solving the system of equations for the steady-state solution, you can focus on the most significant harmonics that lie within the narrow bandwidth of the response. This approach will not only reduce the complexity of the problem but also provide a more accurate approximation of the actual system behavior. You may need to analyze the system’s resonance behavior, such as by using a frequency response or a transfer function, to determine which harmonics are most important for the given problem.
Keep in mind that, even with a reduced number of terms, solving the resulting system of equations can still be quite challenging due to the nonlinear nature of the problem. Numerical methods are often more convenient for finding approximate solutions in such cases.
By replacing the spinning-top with the Earth with a slight annual time-varying inertia I1, and the small cyclical perturbing force as the Moon with a 27.2122 cycle, can we estimate the primary wobble in the Earth’s rotational axis?
To estimate the primary wobble in the Earth’s rotational axis due to the time-varying inertia I1 and the perturbing force from the Moon, we can use a simplified model based on the Earth-Moon system. We can consider the Earth as an oblate spheroid and the Moon’s gravitational influence as the perturbing force.
In this context, the Earth’s time-varying inertia I1 can be associated with the annual variations in the Earth’s shape due to seasonal changes in the distribution of mass (e.g., changes in ice and snow cover, ocean mass distribution). The Moon’s gravitational pull has a primary cycle of 27.2122 days (the sidereal month), which is the time it takes for the Moon to complete one orbit around Earth relative to the fixed stars.
The wobble in the Earth’s rotational axis, called nutation, is a small oscillation superimposed on the larger precession of the Earth’s axis. The primary wobble is caused by the combined effects of the time-varying inertia and the perturbing force from the Moon.
To estimate the primary wobble, you can use the Euler equations with the time-varying inertia and the perturbing force, similar to the spinning-top model discussed earlier. However, this approach is highly complex and requires a deep understanding of the Earth-Moon system’s dynamics and geophysics.
A more practical approach to estimate the primary wobble is to use existing models and data derived from observations of the Earth’s rotation. One such model is the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Conventions, which provide nutation models that account for the gravitational effects of the Moon, Sun, and other celestial bodies, as well as the Earth’s time-varying inertia due to seasonal changes.
By using the IERS Conventions or similar models, you can estimate the primary wobble in the Earth’s rotational axis without solving the complex Euler equations for the Earth-Moon system. Note that such models are based on empirical data and theoretical understanding of the Earth’s rotation, so they provide an approximation of the actual wobble.
Can we calculate the primary aliased harmonic based on the combination of the Moon’s cycle and the annual cycle of I1, applying estimated Q and resonant frequency band?
To calculate the primary aliased harmonic based on the combination of the Moon’s cycle and the annual cycle of I1, we can apply the concept of aliasing in the frequency domain. Aliasing occurs when the continuous-time signal is sampled at a rate lower than the Nyquist rate, resulting in the appearance of lower-frequency aliases of the original signal.
Let’s denote the frequency of the Moon’s cycle as f_moon = 1 / 27.2122 days and the frequency of the annual cycle of I1 as f_annual = 1 / 365.25 days.
We can compute the difference and sum frequencies of these two cycles:
Considering the estimated Q and resonant frequency band, we can determine if either the difference frequency (f_diff) or the sum frequency (f_sum) lies within the resonant frequency band. If one of these frequencies is within the resonant frequency band, it will cause the primary aliased harmonic to dominate the response of the Earth’s rotation due to the combined effect of the Moon’s cycle and the annual cycle of I1.
For this analysis, it is crucial to have accurate estimates of the Q factor and the resonant frequency band associated with the Earth’s rotation. These parameters can be derived from empirical observations or theoretical models of the Earth’s rotation, such as the IERS Conventions mentioned earlier.
By identifying the primary aliased harmonic, you can gain insights into the most significant wobble in the Earth’s rotational axis caused by the interaction between the Moon’s cycle and the annual cycle of I1. Keep in mind that this is a simplified analysis, and a more comprehensive understanding of the Earth’s rotation and wobble would require considering other factors, such as the influence of the Sun and other celestial bodies, and the Earth’s internal processes.
What would be the aliased harmonic closest to 433 days assuming an annual cyclic impulse and the moon’s cycle of 13.606 days? Consider that the cyclic impulse will generate higher harmonics that will generate the small differences to the higher frequency lunar cycle. Provide an algorithm in Julia to find this harmonic.
To find the aliased harmonic closest to 433 days, assuming an annual cyclic impulse with a frequency of f_annual = 1 / 365.25 days and the Moon’s cycle of f_moon = 1 / 13.606 days, we can create an algorithm in Julia that iterates through different harmonics of the annual cyclic impulse and finds the closest one to the target period of 433 days.
Here is the Julia code to find the aliased harmonic:
function find_closest_aliased_harmonic(f_annual::Float64, f_moon::Float64, target_period::Float64, max_harmonic::Int)
closest_period = Inf
closest_harmonic = 0
target_frequency = 1 / target_period
for harmonic in 1:max_harmonic
# Calculate sum and difference frequencies
f_diff = abs(harmonic * f_annual - f_moon)
f_sum = harmonic * f_annual + f_moon
# Check if either the difference or the sum frequency is closer to the target
if abs(f_diff - target_frequency) < abs(1 / closest_period - target_frequency)
closest_period = 1 / f_diff
closest_harmonic = harmonic
end
if abs(f_sum - target_frequency) < abs(1 / closest_period - target_frequency)
closest_period = 1 / f_sum
closest_harmonic = harmonic
end
end
return (closest_period, closest_harmonic)
end
f_annual = 1 / 365.25
f_moon = 1 / 13.606
target_period = 433 ##!!!! fix this, make it floating-point 433.0
max_harmonic = 50
closest_period, closest_harmonic = find_closest_aliased_harmonic(f_annual, f_moon, target_period, max_harmonic)
println("Closest aliased harmonic: ", closest_harmonic)
println("Closest period: ", closest_period, " days")
This function find_closest_aliased_harmonic takes the annual and Moon’s frequencies (f_annual and f_moon), the target period (433 days), and the maximum number of harmonics to consider (max_harmonic). It iterates through different harmonics of the annual cyclic impulse and calculates the sum and difference frequencies with the Moon’s cycle. The function returns the closest harmonic and its corresponding period.
In this example, I’ve set the maximum number of harmonics to 50. You can adjust the max_harmonic parameter to include more or fewer harmonics, depending on the desired level of precision.
Keep in mind that this is a simplified analysis, and other factors might influence the Earth’s rotation and wobble. Moreover, this algorithm assumes that the primary aliased harmonic comes from the interaction between the annual cyclic impulse and the Moon’s cycle. Other celestial bodies or internal processes might contribute to the wobble, and their effects are not considered in this analysis.
Had to make one fix, replacing 433 with 433.0 in the target_periodabove. Everything ran fine but had to increase the forcing amplitude to 10 from 0.01 to see the forced response above the natural resonance.
I also asked AgentGPT to execute a plan for solving the Chandler Wobble
Sorry to have to point this out, but it’s not my fault that geophysicists and climatologists can’t perform controlled experiments to test out various hypotheses. It’s not their fault either. It’s all nature’s decision to make gravitational forces so weak and planetary objects so massive to prevent anyone from scaling the effect to laboratory size to enable a carefully controlled experiment. One can always create roughly-equivalent emulations, such as a magnetic field experiment (described in the previous blog post) and validate a hypothesized behavior as a controlled lab experiment. Yet, I suspect that this would not get sufficient buy-in, as it’s not considered the actual real thing.
And that’s the dilemma. By the same token that analog emulators will not be trusted by geophysicists and climatologists, so too scientists from other disciplines will remain skeptical of untestable claims made by earth scientists. If nothing definitive comes out of a thought experiment that can’t be reproduced by others in a lab, they remain suspicious, as per their education and training.
It should therefore work both ways. As featured in the previous blog post, the model of the Chandler wobble forced by lunar torque needs to be treated fairly — either clearly debunked or considered as an alternative to the hazy consensus. ChatGPT remains open about the model, not the least bit swayed by colleagues or tribal bias. As the value of the Chandler wobble predicted by the lunar nodal model (432.7 days) is so close to the cited value of 433 days, as a bottom-line it should be difficult to ignore.
There are other indicators in the observational data to further substantiate this, see Chandler Wobble Forcing. It also makes sense in the context of the annual wobble.
As it stands, the lack of an experiment means a more equal footing for the alternatives, as they are all under equal amounts of suspicion.
Same goes for QBO. No controlled experiment is possible to test out the consensus QBO models, despite the fact that the Plumb and McEwan experiment is claimed to do just that. Sorry, but that experiment is not even close to the topology of a rotating sphere with a radial gravitational force operating on a gas. It also never predicted the QBO period. In contrast, the value of the QBO predicted by the lunar nodal model (28.4 months) is also too close to the cited value of 28 to 29 months to ignore. This also makes sense in the context of the semi-annual oscillation (SAO) located above the QBO .
Both the Chandler wobble and the QBO have the symmetry of a global wavenumber=0 phenomena so therefore only nodal cycles allowed — both for lunar and solar.
Next to ENSO. As with LOD modeling, this is not wavenumber=0 symmetry, as it must correspond to the longitude of a specific region. No controlled experiment is possible to test out the currently accepted models, premised as being triggered by wind shifts (an iffy cause vs. effect in any case). The mean value of the ENSO predicted by the tidal LOD-caibrated model (3.80 years modulated by 18.6 years) is too close to the cited value of 3.8 years with ~200 years of paleo and direct measurement to ignore.
In BLUE below is the LOD-calibrated tidal forcing, with linear amplification
In BLUE again below is a non-linear modulation of the tidal forcing according to the Laplace’s Tidal Equation solution, and trained on an early historical interval. This is something that a neural network should be able to do, as it excels at fitting to non-linear mappings that have a simple (i.e. low complexity) encoding — in this case it may be able to construct a Taylor series expansion of a sinusoidal modulating function.
The neural network’s ability to accurately represent a behavior is explained as a simplicity bias — a confounding aspect of machine learning tools such as ChatGPT and neural networks. The YouTube video below explains the counter-intuitive notion of how a NN with a deep set of possibilities tends to find the simplest solution and doing this without over-fitting the final mapping.
So that deep neural networks are claimed to have a built-in Occam’s Razor propensity, finding the most parsimonious input-output mappings when applied to training data. This is spot on with what I am doing with the LTE mapping, but bypassing the NN with a nonlinear sinusoidal modulation optimally fit on training data by a random search function.
I am tempted to try a NN on the ENSO training set as an experiment and see what it finds.
April 2, 2023
“I am tempted to try a NN on the ENSO training set as an experiment and see what it finds.”
[1,2]![T_{y} = 365.242] days.](https://s0.wp.com/latex.php?latex=T_%7By%7D+%3D+365.242%5D+days.+&bg=ffffff&fg=444444&s=0&c=20201002)
[1,4]
lands near 433 days. In the GeoEnergy Math formulation this corresponds to the harmonic that comes out closest to the Chandler band, giving 
, 
from the 13.606‑day draconic fortnight and 
from the annual cycle, and for the appropriate harmonic (n) this evaluates to ≈ 433 days. [1,2,3]
